- H. Fiedler, P. Gorny, W. Grass, S. Hölldobler, G. Hotz, I. Kerner, R. Reischuk:
Ausgezeichnete Informatikdissertationen 1997.
GI-Dissertationspreis, Teubner Verlag Stuttgart, Leipzig,
1998.
Website anzeigen - Karin Genther, Rüdiger Reischuk:
Analysing Data Access Strategies in Cache Coherent Architectures.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-98-25,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1998.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
The conception of multiprocessor systems based on shared memory is
to provide logically uniform data access, even in systems with many
processors. Since data requests that cannot be satisfied physically
within the processor environment suffer from high latencies, these
systems employ memory hierarchies including private caches. Two
powerful techniques that reduce and hide latency in memory
hierarchies are buffering and pipelining of data accesses. In order
to utilize these techniques in global shared-memory architectures,
new memory consistency models have been defined. In this paper, we
discuss the cache coherence problem and three consistency models
that are commonly used to enhance performance. We develop a uniform
parameterized model for different parallel architectures and
estimate the latency for data access in each consistency model
abstracting from the details of hardware mechanisms. The goal of
our approach is to obtain realistic predictions of running-times for
the various models.
- Andreas Jakoby, Rüdiger Reischuk:
Average Case Complexity of Unbounded Fanin Circuits.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-98-17,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1998.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
Several authors have shown that the PARITY-function cannot be computed by
unbounded fanin circuits of small depth and polynomial size.
Even more, constant depth k circuits of size exp n^Theta(1/k) give
wrong results for PARITY for almost half of all inputs.
We generalize these results in two directions.
First, we obtain similar tight lower bounds for the average
case complexity of circuits, measuring the computational delay
instead of the static circuit depth.
Secondly, with respect to average delay of unbounded fanin circuits
we completely classify all parallel prefix functions,
for which PARITY is just one promiment example.
It is shown that only two cases can occur: a parallel prefix functions f either
has the same average complexity as PARITY, that is the average delay has to be
of order Theta(log n / loglog s) for circuits of size s,
or f can be computed with constant average delay and almost linear size --
there is no complexity level in between.
This classification is achieved by analyzing the algebraic structure of
semigroups that correspond to parallel prefix functions.
It extends methods developed for bounded fanin circuits
by the first author in his Ph.D. Thesis.
- Andreas Jakoby, Maciej Liskiewicz, Rüdiger Reischuk:
Scheduling Dynamic Graphs.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-98-07,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1998.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
In parallel and distributed computing scheduling low level tasks on the
available hardware is a fundamental problem. Traditionally, one has assumed
that the set of tasks to be executed is known beforehand. Then the scheduling
constraints are given by a precedence graph. Nodes represent the elementary
tasks and edges the dependencies among tasks. This static approach is not
appropriate in situations where the set of tasks is not known exactly in
advance, for example, when different options how to continue a program may
be granted.
In this paper a new model for parallel and distributed programs, the dynamic
process graph will be introduced, which represents all possible executions of
a program in a compact way. The size of this representation is small -- in
many cases only logarithmically with respect to the size of any execution.
An important feature of our model is that unlike precedence graphs, the
encoded executions are directed acyclic graphs having a "regular" structure
that is typical of parallel programs. Dynamic process graphs embed
constructors for parallel programs, synchronization mechanisms as well as
conditional branches. With respect to such a compact representation we
investigate the complexity of different aspects of the scheduling problem:
the question whether a legal schedule exists at all and how to find an
optimal schedule. Our analysis takes into account communication delays
between processors exchanging data.
Precise characterization of the computational complexity of various variants
of this compact scheduling problem will be given in this paper. The results
range from easy, that is NL-complete, to very hard, namely NEXPTIME-complete.
- Andreas Jakoby, Rüdiger Reischuk, Christian Schindelhauer:
The Complexity of Broadcasting in Planar and Decomposable Graphs.
Discrete Applied Mathematics, 1-3(83):179-206, 1998.
Website anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
[URL=http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/505609/description#description]also included in special issue "Discrete Applied Mathematics - Editors' Choice 1988[/URL]
- Rüdiger Reischuk, Thomas Zeugmann:
A Complete and Tight Average-Case Analysis of Learning Monomials.
Technischer Bericht IIM-TR-A-98-15,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1998.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
We advocate to analyze the average complexity of learning problems.
An appropriate framework for this purpose is introduced.
Based on it we consider the problem of learning monomials and the
special case of learning monotone monomials
in the limit and for on-line predictions in two variants:
from positive data only, and from positive and negative examples.
The well-known Wholist algorithm is completely analyzed,
in particular its average-case behavior with respect to the class of
binomial distributions. We consider different complexity measures:
the number of mind changes, the number of prediction errors, and
the total learning time.
Tight bounds are obtained implying that worst case bounds are too pessimistic.
On the average learning can be achieved exponentially faster.
Furthermore, we study a new learning model, stochastic finite learning,
in which, in contrast to PAC learning, some information about the
underlying distribution is given and the goal is to find a correct
(not only approximatively correct) hypothesis.
We develop techniques to obtain good bounds for stochastic finite learning
from a precise average case analysis of strategies for learning in the limit
and illustrate our approach for the case of learning monomials.
- Rüdiger Reischuk, Thomas Zeugmann:
An Average-Case Optimal One-Variable Pattern Learner.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-98-22,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1998.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
A new algorithm for learning one-variable pattern languages from positive data
is proposed and analyzed with respect to its average-case behavior.
We consider the total learning time that takes into account all
operations till convergence to a correct hypothesis is achieved.
For almost all meaningful distributions
defining how the pattern variable is replaced by a string to generate
random examples of the target pattern language,
it is shown that this algorithm converges within an expected
constant number of rounds and a total learning time that is linear in the
pattern length. Thus, our solution is average-case optimal in a strong sense.
Though one-variable pattern languages can neither be finitely inferred
from positive data nor PAC-learned,
our approach can also be extended to a probabilistic finite learner
that it exactly infers all one-variable pattern languages from positive
data with high confidence.
It is a long standing open problem whether pattern languages
can be learned in case that substitutions of pattern variables by
the empty string can also occur.
Our learning strategy can be generalized to this situation as well.
Finally, we show some experimental results for the behaviour
of this new learning algorithm in pratice.
This TR extends A-97-13
- Rüdiger Reischuk, Thomas Zeugmann:
Learning One-Variable Pattern Languages in Linear Average Time.
In 11. Conf. on Computational Learning Theory COLT'98, S. 198-208.
,
1998.
Website anzeigen
- Martin Dietzfelbinger, Miroslaw Kutylowski, Rüdiger Reischuk:
Feasible Time-Optimal Algorithms for Boolean Functions on Exclusive - Write PRAMS.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-95-05,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1995.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
It was shown some years ago that the computation time for many important Boolean
functions of n arguments on concurrent-read exclusive-write parallel random-access
machines (CREW PRAMs) of unlimited size is at least v(n) = 0.72 log_2 n.
On the other hand, it is known that every Boolean function of n arguments can be
computed in v(n)+1 steps on a CREW PRAM with n * 2^{n-1} processors and memory cells.
In the case of the OR of n bits, n processors and cells are sufficient.
In this paper it is shown that for many important functions
there are CREW PRAM algorithms that almost meet the lower bound
in that they take v(n) + o(log n) steps,
but use only a small number of processors and memory cells (in most cases, n).
In addition, the cells only have to store binary words of bounded length
(in most cases, length 1). We call such algorithms "feasible".
The functions concerned include: the PARITY function and, more generally,
all symmetric functions; a large class of Boolean formulas; some functions over
non-Boolean domains {0,.. ,k-1} for small k, in particular parallel prefix sums;
addition of n-bit-numbers; sorting n/l binary numbers of length l.
Further, it is shown that Boolean circuits with fan-in 2, depth d, and size s
can be evaluated by CREW PRAMs with fewer than s processors in
v(2^d)+o(d) = 0.72d + o(d) steps.
For the exclusive-read exclusive-write model (EREW PRAM) a feasible algorithm is
described that computes PARITY of n bits in 0.86 log_2 n steps.
Key words:
parallel random-access machine, exclusive-write,
concurrent-read, exclusive-read, parallel time complexity,
Boolean functions, Boolean formulas, Boolean circuits, symmetric functions,
parallel prefix, parity, addition, sorting
AMS(MOS) subject classifications: 68Q10, 68Q05, 68Q25
A preliminary version of these results has been presented at the
Second Annual ACM Symposium on Parallel Algorithms and Architectures, Crete, July 1990.
This extended and improved version will appear in SIAM Journal on Computing.
- Danny Dolev, Rüdiger Reischuk, Ray Strong, Ed Wimmers:
A Decentralized High Performance Time Service Architecture.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-95-26,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1995.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
A time service is a means by which users, applications, etc.
obtain values associated with some measurement of elapsed time from
some agreed on event. In a relativistic world, time services are
necessarily imperfect, there being no such thing as simultaneity.
In this paper we discuss an architecture for delivering
required time services to a collection of heterogeneous machines
communicating over a wide area network consisting of multiply connected
and overlapping local area networks with various communication media.
The primary building block of our architecture is a logical clock.
We explain how logical clock objects simplify the treatment and
resolution of a number of problems associated with time services.
Having used logical clock objects to decouple clock synchronization
problems from problems associated with smoothness and conformity
to political time, we provide a straightforward master-slave
algorithm for clock synchronization and show how to transform it
into an eavesdropping algorithm that takes advantage of
the broadcast nature of most local area networks to dramatically
reduce message overhead.
Finally, we show how to integrate eavesdropping and regular
clock synchronization algorithms into a fault tolerant
network time service that tolerates and coordinates multiple
master clocks or external sources of time.
- Danny Dolev, Rüdiger Reischuk, Ray Strong:
Observable Clock Synchronization.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-95-04,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1995.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
While the synchronization of time-of-day clocks ordinarily requires
information flow in both directions between the clocks, this information
need not flow directly via messages.
However, to take advantage of indirect information flow, we have to
make a number of complex assumptions about the behavior of the communication
medium. To facilitate the verification of such assumptions, we
develop a relativistic theory of observable clock synchronization that
does not use or depend on a Newtonian framework or real time. Within
the context of this theory, we focus on the problem of estimating the
time on a remote clock.
We generalize the concept of {\bf rapport} to capture the situation when
such an estimate is sufficient for clock synchronization purposes.
With a single property, called the Observable Drift Property, we characterize
the information flow required for obtaining rapport.
We compare our relativized and observable concepts with analogs based
on the notion of real time in order to show that we are studying
the right quantities.
We then give several clock synchronization algorithms that replace round trip
synchronization algorithms but use only passive message receipt in a broadcast
medium. These algorithms make the message cost of synchronization independent
of the number of participants. Each algorithm measures and can report
its own precision and does not depend on any assumed bound on
message transmission and processing time. These properties have
in the past only been associated with variants of round trip
synchronization where the message cost is proportional to the number
of participants. Verifying that a particular network can support one
of these algorithms is reduced (by our results) to verifying
four straightforward axioms and the Observable Drift Property.
presented at the 14.~ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing,
Los Angeles, 1994
- Andreas Jakoby, Rüdiger Reischuk, Christian Schindelhauer:
Circuit Complexity: from the Worst Case to the Average Case.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-95-02,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1995.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
In contrast to machine models like Turing machines or random access
machines, circuits are a rigid computational model. The internal
information flow of a computation is fixed in advance, independent
of the actual input. Therefore, in complexity theory only worst case
complexity measures have been used to analyse this model. Concerning
the circuit size this seems to be the best one can do.
The delay between feeding the input bits into a circuit and being
able to read off the output bits at the output gates is usually
measured by the depth of the circuit. One might try to take advantage
of favourable cases in which the output values are obtained much
earlier. This will be the case when critical paths, e.g. paths
between input and output gates of maximal length, have no influence
on the final output.
Inspired by recent successful attempts to develop a meaningful
average case analysis for TM computations [L86,G91,BCGL92,RS93a], we
follow the same goal for the circuit model. For this purpose, a new
comlexity measure for the internal delay is defined, called time.
This may be given implicitely or explicitely, where in the latter case
a gate has to signal that it is ``ready'', e.g. has computed the desired
result. Using a simple coding both models are shown to be equivalent.
By doubling the number of gates any circuit with implicit timing can
easily be transformed to an equivalent circuit with explicit time
signals.
Based on the notion of time, two average case measures for the circuit
delay are defined. The analysis is not restricted to uniform distributions
over the input space, instead a large class of distributions will be
considered. For this purpose, a complexity notion is needed for
distributions. We define a measure based on the circuit model by considering
the complexity of circuits with uniform distributed random input bits
that generate such distributions.
Finally, this new approach is applied to concrete examples. We derive
matching lower and upper bounds for the average circuit delay for basic
functions like the OR, ADDITION, THRESHOLD and PARITY. It will be shown
that for PARITY the average delay remains logarithmic. In many cases,
however, an exponential speedup compared to the worst case can be achieved.
For example, the average delay for n-Bit-ADDITION is of order loglog n.
The circuit designs to achieve these bounds turn out to be very different
from the standard ones for optimal worst case results.
A preliminary version was presented at 26th STOC'94
- Andreas Jakoby, Rüdiger Reischuk:
Data Transmission in Processor Networks.
In 9. International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms WDAG'95, Band 972 von Lecture Notes in Computer Science, S. 145-159.
Springer,
1995.
Website anzeigen - Andreas Jakoby, Rüdiger Reischuk:
Data Transmission in Processor Networks.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-95-18,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1995.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
We investigate the communication capacity and optimal data
transmission schedules for processor networks connected by
communication links, for example Transputer clusters. Each
link allows the two processors at its endpoints to exchange
data with a given fixed transmission rate tau_d. The commu-
nication itself is done in a blocking mode, that means the
two processors have to synchronize before starting to exchange
data and at any time each processor cannot communicate with
more than one other processor.
Our efficiency analysis will be more realistic by also taking
into account the setup time for a communication, which will be
assumed to be a fixed constant tau_s > 0. Thus, a large amount
of data can be sent from one processor to a neighbour faster by
a single long communication step than by a bunch of small data
exchange steps: sending p data units in one step takes time
tau_s + p * tau_d. However, there is a tradeoff since the receiver
has to wait until it has received the complete set of data before
it can forward pieces to other processors.
The following prototype task called scattering will be considered:
At the beginning one processor called the source possesses a set of
unit size data packets, one for each processor in the network. The
goal is to distribute the packets in minimal time to all recipients.
- Andreas Jakoby, Rüdiger Reischuk, Christian Schindelhauer:
Malign Distributions for Average Case Circuit Complexity.
In 12. GI-AFCET Symposium on Theoretical Aspects of Computer Science STACS'95, Band 900 von Lecture Notes in Computer Science, S. 628-639.
Springer,
1995.
Website anzeigen - Andreas Jakoby, Rüdiger Reischuk, Christian Schindelhauer:
Malign Distributions for Average Case Circuit Complexity.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-95-06,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1995.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
In contrast to machine models like Turing machines or random access
machines, circuits are a rigid computational model. The internal
information flow of a computation is fixed in advance, independent of
the actual input. Therefore, in complexity theory only worst case
complexity measures have been used to analyse this model. In [JRS94] we
have defined an average case measure for the time complexity of circuits.
Using this notion tight upper and lower bounds could be obtained for
the average case complexity of several basic Boolean functions.
In this paper we will examine the asymptotic average case complexity of
the set of n-input Boolean functions. In contrast to the worst case a
simple counting argument does not work. We prove that almost all Boolean
function require at least n-log n-llog n expected time even for the uniform
probability distribution. On the other hand, we show that there are
significant subsets of functions that can be computed with a constant
average delay.
Finally, the worst case and average case complexity of a Boolean function
will be compared. We show that for each function that requires circuit
depth d, the expected time complexity will be at least d-log n-log d
with respect to an explicitely defined probability distribution. A nontrivial
bound on the complexity of such a distribution is obtained.
- Andreas Jakoby, Rüdiger Reischuk, Christian Schindelhauer, Stephan Weis:
The Average Case Complexity of the Parallel Prefix Problem.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-95-03,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1995.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
We analyse the average case complexity of evaluating all prefixes of
an input vector over a given semigroup. As computational model
circuits over the semigroup are used and a complexity measure for the
average delay of such circuits, called time, is introduced. Based on
this notion, we then define the average case complexity of a
computational problem for arbitrary input distributions.
For highly nonuniform distributions the average case complexity turns
out to be as large as the worst case complexity. Thus, in order to
make the average case analysis meaningful we also develop a complexity
measure for distributions.
Using this framework we show that two n-bit numbers can be added with
an average delay of order loglog n for a large class of distributions.
We then give a complete characterization of the average case
complexity of the parallel prefix problem with respect to the
underlying semigroup. By considering a related reachability problem
for finite automata it is shown that the complexity only depends on a
property of the semigroup we will call a confluence.
Our analysis yields that only two different cases can arise for the
reachability question. We show that the parallel prefix problem
either can be solved with an average delay of order loglog n, that
means with an exponential speedup compared to the worst case, or in
case of nonconfluent semigroups that no speedup is possible. Circuit
designs are presented that for confluent semigroups achieve the
optimal double logarithmic delay while keeping the circuit size
linear.
The analysis and results are illustrated at some concrete functions.
For the n-ary Boolean OR, THRESHOLD and PARITY, for example, the
average case circuit delay is determined exactly up to small constant
factors for arbitrary distributions.
Finally, we determine the complexity of the reachability problem
itself and show that it is at most quadratic in the size of the
semigroup.
- Andreas Jakoby, Rüdiger Reischuk, Christian Schindelhauer:
The Complexity of Broadcasting in Planar and Decomposable Graphs.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-95-08,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1995.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
Broadcasting in processor networks means disseminating a single piece
of information, which is originally known only at some nodes, to all
members of the network. The goal is to inform everybody using as few
rounds as possible, that is minimize the broadcasting time.
Given a graph and a subset of nodes, the sources, the problem to determine
its specific broadcast time, or more general to find a broadcast schedule
of minimal length has shown to be NP-complete. In contrast to other
optimization problems for graphs, like vertex cover or traveling salesman,
little was known about restricted graph classes for which polynomial time
algorithms exist, for example for graphs of bounded treewidth. The
broadcasting problem is harder in this respect because it does not have the
finite state property. Here, we will investigate this problem in detail and
prove that it remains hard even if one restricts to planar graphs of bounded
degree or constant broadcasting time. A simple consequence is that the
minimal broadcasting time cannot even be approximated with an error less than
1/8, unless P = NP.
On the other hand, we will investigate for which classes of graphs this
problem can be solved efficiently and show that broadcasting and even a more
general version of this problem becomes easy for graphs with good
decomposition properties. The solution strategy can efficiently be
parallelized, too. Combining the negative and the positive results reveals
the parameters that make broadcasting difficult. Depending on simple graph
properties the complexity jumps from NC or P to NP.
Classification: algorithms and data structures, computational complexity.
- Maciej Liskiewicz, Rüdiger Reischuk:
The Complexity World below Logarithmic Space.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-95-07,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1995.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
We investigate space complexity classes defined by
Turing machines that use less than logarithmic space.
Because of the limited counting ability of such machines
most of the standard simulation techniques do not work for
sublogarithmic space classes.
However, machines with such little space may still be quite powerful.
Therefore, it was not obvious how to obtain analogs for inclusion and
separation results known for classes above logspace.
We review known facts about the sublogarithmic space world
and present several new results, which
show that these classes really behave differently.
For example, certain closure properties do not hold.
The restricted power of these machines makes it possible to prove explicit
separations -- even for alternating complexity classes --
by combinatorial arguments and to obtain a hierarchy of
non-relativized complexity classes without any unproven assumption.
We will also discuss upward and downward translation issues.
Finally, these complexity classes are related to other classes within P,
in particular to context-free languages.
- Maciej Liskiewicz, Rüdiger Reischuk:
The Sublogarithmic Alternating Space World.
Technischer Bericht SIIM-TR-A-95-01,
Schriftenreihe der Institute für Informatik/Mathematik der Universität zu Lübeck,
1995.
Postscript anzeigen | Zusammenfassung anzeigen
This paper tries to fully characterize the properties and relationships
of space classes defined by Turing machines
that use less than logarithmic space -- may they be deterministic,
nondeterministic or alternating (DTM, NTM or ATM).
We provide several examples of specific languages and show that such machines
are unable to accept these languages.
The basic proof method is a nontrivial extension of the
1^n -> 1^{n+n!} technique to alternating TMs.
Let \llog denote the logarithmic function \log iterated twice,
and Sigma_k Space(S), Pi_k Space (S) be the complexity classes defined
by S-space-bounded ATMs that alternate at most k-1 times and
start in an existential, resp.~universal state.
Our first result shows that for each k > 1 the sets
Sigma_k Space(llog) \ Pi_k Space (o(log)) and
Pi_k Space(llog) \ Sigma_k Space (o(log))
are both not empty. This implies that for each S in the intersection of
Omega(llog) and o(log )
Sigma_1 Space(S), Sigma_2 Space(S), Sigma_3 Space(S) .. ..
form an infinite hierarchy.
Furthermore, this separation is extended to space classes defined
by ATMs with a nonconstant alternation bound A provided that
the product A * S grows sublogarithmically.
These lower bounds can also be used to show that basic closure
properties do not hold for such classes. We obtain
that for any S in Omega(llog) intersection o(log) and all k>1
\Sigma_k Space (S) and \Pi_k Space (S) are not
closed under complementation and concatenation.
Moreover, \Sigma_k Space (S) is not closed under intersection,
and \Pi_k Space (S) is not closed under union.
It is also shown that ATMs recognizing bounded languages can always be
guaranteed to halt. For the class of Z--bounded languages with
Z <= \exp S we obtain the equality
co-Sigma_k Space(S) = Pi_k Space (S) .
Finally, for sublogarithmic bounded ATMs we give a separation between
the weak and strong space measure, and prove a logarithmic lower space
bound for the recognition of nonregular context-free languages.
Key words:
space complexity, sublogarithmic complexity bounds,
alternating Turing machines, halting computations,
complementation of languages,
complexity hierachies, closure properties,
context-free languages, bounded languages.
AMS(MOS) subject classifications: 68Q05, 68Q10, 68Q25, 68Q45
Preliminary versions of these results have been presented at the
10. GI-AFCET Symposium on Theoretical Aspects of Computer Science,
W"urzburg, 1993,
and at the 9. IEEE-SIGACT-EATCS Symposium on Structure in
Complexity Theory, Amsterdam, 1994.
A final version will appear in SIAM Journal on Computing.
